To Kill a Mockingbird-Mayellas Motives for Accusing Tom

In the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee there is a recurring them involving racism and incest in the town of Maycomb, Alabama during the 1930’s. Mayella Ewell is a nineteen year old girl living at home with her abusive drunk father, and 8 younger brothers and sisters. Her mother died thus leaving her to be the mother figure in the poor household. Mayella accuses twenty-five year old black man Tom Robinson of raping her. Mayella had multiple motives for falsely accusing Tom Robinson of her rape. Mayella accused Tom because she was forced to by her father, Bob Ewell and because that man is her father. It is made very clear during the trial that it was not Tom Robinson who raped Mayella Ewell, but instead her own father. She blamed Robinson because she was evidently coersed by Bob Ewell. In Tom’s testimony he spoke of Mayella’s actions before Bob Ewell came in, â€Å"She says she never kissed a man before an’ she might as well kiss a nigger. She says what her papa do to her don’t count† (page 260). When Bob saw Mayella and Tom together being the mean drunk he is he beat and raped Mayella. In anger, he knew someone would have to pay for what he saw going on between Tom and Mayella. It was not hard to convince people in a town like Maycomb that Tom was guilty. He was black, he had a criminal record known to the citizens of Maycomb since it was such a small town, and he lived in the same neighborhood as the Ewells. People had most likely seen Tom entering the Ewell home because on more than one occasion, Mayella asked Tom to come in and help do some work around the house. â€Å"She’d call me in, suh. Seemed like every time I passed yonder she’d have some little somethin’ for me to do† (page 56). Mayella was coursed by her own father to accuse Tom because Tom was such an easy target to cover up her father’s actions. Mayella falsely accused Tom Robinson for another reason too. For the most part, victims love their abusers. Mayella is the victim and Bob Ewell is the abuser. Bob Ewell does not do anything productive but regardless he is still Mayella’s provider of many things like a home. Mayella, after being coersed by her father would much rather come off as the victim of abuse my some ‘evil’ black man than her father. â€Å"That nigger yonder took advantage of me an’ if you fine fancy gentlemen don’t wanta do nothin’ about it then ou’re all yellow stinkin’ cowards, stinkin’ cowards, the lot of you† (page 251). Mayella was the one who initiated the incident too so instead of taking responsibility for it she would rather put the blame on a black man who would of course not even have a chance in court. Mayella accused Tom Robinson for rape when in reality it was Bob Ewell, her father. She did this because her father made her do it and because she would much rather blame the black man than admit that she came onto him and that it was actually her father that beat and raped her.

The Bridge at Dong Ha

The book The Bridge at Dong Ha written by John Miller is a narrative description of the story of how a bridge on Cua Viet river separating north and South Vietnam was destroyed by a brave American marine captain named Ripley in 1972 in US Vietnam war. The destruction delayed the movement of Vietnamese forces from the north to the south by three long years. The book narrates this adventurous event in a gripping and wonderful language. The presentation and the language of the book have made it very attractive to the readers.The Bridge at Dong Ha 3 The Bridge at Dong Ha by John Miller The book The Bridge at Dong Ha written by John Miller is the story of a genuine marine war hero of America’s war history. It also displays the dedication to duty of a person. The backdrop of the story is US Vietnamese war. There was a strong heavy bridge built by the US army several years back on the Cua Viet River in Vietnam. The bridge used to separate North Vietnam from South Vietnam.America was loosing out in the US Vietnam war and a large army of Vietnamese forces were approaching from the north to take over the south. The book The Bridge at Dong Ha has described how an officer from US marine forces named Captain Ripley destroyed this bridge with tremendous courage and aggression on Easter Sunday, 1972. It is to be noted that the destruction of this bridge that delayed the advancement of the Vietnamese army towards the south for three long years.The book has given the detailed description of his courage and it is really fascinating to go through the book. The book is an excellent narration of the events of how a single man, with his tremendous courage and dedication towards his nation destroyed the bridge and stopped the aggression of the enemy force comprising of 30,000 soldiers and 200 tanks. All these are available in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X. Every action of the event has been described in detail in the book. To quote from the website http://www. amazon.com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X, â€Å"Capt Ripley climbs over barbed wire fences, swings across the under girding of the bridge, and fights this battle from street to foxhole around the little The Bridge at Dong Ha 4 town of Dong Ha (just a few miles from the DMZ). The writing is wonderful and gripping, putting you face-to-face with the action as it unfolds hour by hour. † While describing the heroism of Captain Ripley, the author has stated how he hand walked on the beams under the bridge, holding detonators with his teeth and brought back the burning fuses back to shore.He did all the risky jobs by himself and saved the life of his fellow soldiers from sure death. This heroic act earned him a Navy Cross in 1962. All these have been stated in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X The toughest part of the entire operation is that when Captain Ripley was in the process of detonating the bridge, continuous light machines firing was going on from the northern side of the bridge from the Vietnamese troops. Under such heavy firing, Captain Ripley completed the entire operation, risking his whole life and safeguarding the life of his other comrades.All these have been mentioned in the above mentioned website. The description not only shows his courage, but also displays his level of intelligence as he took the decision of destroying the bridge against the command from his superior officers. To quote from the above mentioned website, http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/dp/155750587X, â€Å"Ripley's gallant effort was especially courageous since he was acting against a command suggestion to hold the bridge for a counterattack that could not have been mounted, and South Vietnamese troops were in disarray and fleeing to the South all around theThe Bridge at Dong Ha 5 Vietnamese unit he advised. Miller's narration of this small action tend s more toward the sensational than the historical. † Though some people say that the book opened in a relatively slow note, but actually the stage was being set for a drama and all the main characters involved were introduced one by one. They include ARVN Major Le Ba Birth; his bodyguard Three Finger Jack, US Army major Jim Smock; and Birth's advisor, Ripley – the hero of the event and also the book.It has been mentioned in the above named website that Ripley was a product of American marine, Airborne, Ranger and Seal training with some added polish from British Royal Marine. The emotional side of Captain Ripley has also been nicely described by the author in the book. There was a time when he charged into the middle of a mortar fire to save the life of a little young girl. The humanity side is also displayed while narrating the events related to the behavior of the radioman, the commander of South Vietnam unit and the commander’s bodyguard.Dedication of Vietname se men towards their nation has also been described in the book. This seemed to be a very balanced approach. Another part that needs appreciation is that the author John Miller interviewed in detail Captain Ripley about the entire event while penning down the history. It has been stated in the above mentioned website that many minor incidents of the operation has been so vividly described that many civilians may not understand or feel the reason behind those actions, but only marine people can feel and judge them.Due to these factors, the reading of the book is not only fascinating, but I feel it can be described more of an adventure history type. It seemed as if an historical The Bridge at Dong Ha 6 event is presented and written in the language of adventure. This factor has made the reading of the book attractive to the readers. This can be understood from the comments by a reader in one of the reviews posted in the website http://www. amazon. com/Bridge-Dong-Ha-Bluejacket-Books/d p/155750587X.To quote from that review, â€Å"It is difficult for a reader to appreciate this without almost an engineering drawing of the undersides of the bridge. I would have loved to see drawings showing the design of the bridge, with little arrows and annotations, ‘pulled xx pounds of explosives across this girder'†. Frankly speaking, I do not consider the above quote from the reader a criticism of the book. I feel that the reader has become so involved with the drama that he is expecting a Stallone or Jacky Chan type of Hollywood thriller while reading the book.The writing of the book is so thrilling and gripping. It seemed that he is watching a movie version of the book. A diagrammatic presentation of the event would satisfy that expectation. But obviously that is not done. I have never seen any thriller novel, where the story has been described in the form of a diagram. I really appreciate the initiative taken by the author in penning down the heroic act of Capt ain Ripley so that the message of his heroism can be known by the future generations. Only a narrative description would have made reading of the book quite boring and history type.His blending of adventure and history has really made the book attractive for reading to the masses. In all the reviews, I found that readers have openly stated that they like the dramatic presentation of this 186 pages book a lot. It seemed that the author really understands the pulse of the readers. The Bridge at Dong Ha 7 Reference List 1) Customer reviews on November 10 2002, December 27 1999, August 12 2006 and also Editorial reviews: Retrieved 12th March, 2009 from

The Main Criteria in the Choice of Medium of Articulation

Communication is defined as the â€Å"transfer of meaning† (Eunson, 2006:2). The message to be conveyed, the urgency of the message, the effect on the receiver etc determine the â€Å"preference† of the channel of communication. This essay shall argue that this is the most important criteria, in channel determination. Right Preference – Key to Effectiveness New inventions have facilitated ease of communication. Ironically though, Priestley’s Paradox explains that, the more we advance our means of communication, the less we communicate (Priestley 1957, as cited in Eunson, 2006:4).Hence, for effective communication the important things to be considered may be the message and effect (Lasswell’s model, 1948, as cited in Eunson, 2006:7). The latter i. e. the ‘effect’ of the message on the receiver, depends on which mode of communication is â€Å"preferred† over which and will make the difference between communicating effectively and o rdinarily. Especially, if the communication is meant for a limited audience, like the staff of one particular department of an office, or to a few sales- staff with inconsistent performance etc.For example, in a Human Resource Department in an office, with a HR Manager, and five assistants, communication is possible with his staff through direct face-to-face communication, or through memos, or e-mail notifications etc. The smart manager will choose the medium, depending on the importance of the message and the impact it should effect. He may convey routine ‘Monthly Target’ notices by pasting them on the Department Bulletin board, and further sending a copy of the message to each staff through the e-mail as a follow up.But, he may ‘prefer’ to send the individual’s ‘Performance Assessment Report’ through individual e-mail and then a one-to-one review. This ‘preference’ is exercised to enhance effective communication. The richn ess of media (Daft and Lengel, 1986) effected by direct face-to-face communication is ‘preferred’ to the e-mail channel, which is less effective than the chosen one. Conclusion Making the right â€Å"preference† in the choice of media to communicate is vital to being effective. Since effectiveness is the key element in any communication, it is clear that the right choices and preferences will lead to success.Bibliography Daft, R. L. and R. H. Lengel, (1986) â€Å"Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural Design,† Management Sci. , 32, 5, 554–571. Can also be view at website Eunson, Baden, (2006). â€Å"Communication Today,† in Communicating in the 21st Century, 1, pp. 2-18. Tutorial Response 2 Introduction The deluge of technology has been incapable of preventing â€Å"Miscommunication†. This essay will briefly explain the term and analyze two problems of ‘context’ resulting in miscommunicatio n, and suggest a strategy to overcome the ‘noise’ factor.Context, Noise and Miscommunication The ‘Context’ of the communication is concerned with the following issues 1) Power and Status Relationships 2) Cultural factors 3) Interpersonal Relationships 4) Time (Eunson, 006:16). Communication derives its meaning from the context, under which it takes place. The basic tenet of communication is, to send as well as receive and is said to occur, only when understanding is achieved. This fails, when there is non-cooperation between one or more of the parties and results in miscommunication.This can be deduced as the ‘noise’ in the Sender-Message-Receiver (SMR) and the Shannon-Weaver model of communication (1999, as cited in Eunson 2006:8) because it ignores the importance of context, i. e. situational, social, cultural, etc. ‘Context’ can be interpreted differently, by the receiver, according to 1) the cultural differences, 2) status diff erences between the former and the receiver and the sender. For example, using gestures and direct eye-contact is a vital part of Western conversation; however, in the Native American cultures, looking directly into the eyes of elders is disrespectful, and gestures are hardly used.Miscommunication may occur when a young American salesman tries to convince an elderly Native American of his product, due to differing cultural contexts. An example of problems arising from the power status differences: A $100 rise in salary for performance, may impact positively on a low-level employee in the factory; while the Manager of the Production is apt to be disgruntled by the same amount. The Quinn, Hildebrandt, Rogers, & Thompson, (1991) (cited in Eunson 2006:16) model helps effectively weed out the noise factor, by strategically and judiciously preferring the channel of communication.For example, to solve problem #1 of mistrust arising from contextual cultural differences, modification of the sales strategy, by adopting a combination of informational communication and relational-communication may help. This will 1) provide the facts to the receiver, 2) win his trust; a sale may effect. And in proble #2, it is possible to build on the existing on trust level of the manager by a) improving relational communication, b) stimulating challenge by using transformational communication, to explain that money is not the only end-goal in life. ConlcusionThe study of various types of communication can help in strategic solutions to problems. Bibliography Eunson, Baden, (2006). â€Å"Communication Today,† Communicating in the 21st Century. , 1, pp. 2-18. Grice, H. P. , (1975), â€Å"Logic and Conversation†, in P. Cole and J. Morgan, eds. , Syntax and Semantics, vol. 3, Academic Press, pp. 41-58 Quinn, R. E. , Hildebrandt, H. W. , Rogers, P. S. , & Thompson, M. P. (1991). â€Å"A competing values framework for analyzing presentational communication in management context s†. The Journal of Business Communication, 28, 213-232.

Environment 110 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environment 110 - Essay Example If the environmental service for gas and oil stopped, assuming that the oil wells run dry, the state would suffer from adverse effects, both social and economic. These may be worse if the scarcity of crude oil is a global problem. One of the effects of the change would be increased unemployment rate as people who worked in the mining fields and processing firms would lose their jobs. People who trade in the commodities would also lose income through lost jobs or lost profits. While importation could ease the burden, this would take time and would not be a complete remedy to lost jobs and reduced profitability. Importation would also increase cost of energy in domestic and industrial set ups, leading to macroeconomic burden. Induced economic strain from lost jobs, reduced income, and possible rise in commodity prices due to increased fuel cost would spill to people disposable income. This could have adverse effects on ability to afford services such as health care and education servic es. The state would also suffer negative effects on its import expenditures. Services pertaining to oil and gas are therefore significant to the economy and should be sustained. Ball State University. â€Å"Key economic sectors in Indiana: State overview.† Ball State University. July, 2014. Web. October 24, 2014. . The Indiana Department of Natural Resources. â€Å"Oil and gas in Indiana.† The Indiana Department of Natural Resources. N.d. Web. October 24, 2014. < http://www.in.gov/dnr/dnroil/files/og-OilGas_in_Indiana.pdf

The hells nature debate Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The hells nature debate - Research Paper Example The debate about the nature of hell is covered in consideration of three main aspects about hell: the duration of hell; the main reason for hell and finally the felling in hell (is the feeling experienced in a state of consciousness or unconsciousness) From this point of view; it is definitely clear that hell’s nature is far much more complicated to understand that one could easily think. As a matter of fact, with the rising of new knowledge each and everyday, it becomes very confusing as to what exactly is hell made up of. This paper approaches the topic of the nature of hell with much criticism so as to clearly analyze two main approaches that are used in an attempt to explain the nature of what is believed to be hellii. In doing effectively doing this, the classical view and the annihilationist view about hell have been critically analyzed with their strengths and weaknesses being closely assessed against the benchmark offered by the Biblical explanations about the nature o f hell. Classical View Despite the fact that the classical view regarding the nature of hell is mostly pegged on the Biblical teachings, it is very important to take note of the fact that the classical view explaining the nature of hell has different versions which are mainly differentiated as per the interpretations that arise from the Biblical teachings regarding hell. The first version is the literal view of hell’s nature. ... Hells nature will be so rough according to this version that the people who will be damned to be in hell will be forever having regrets of their lives. They will be wishing that they move out but on realizing that hell has no way out, and then it will forever be an eternal psychological suffering to them. From this interpretation, it can be clarified that hell is actually a place with only the way in but it totally has no way out. This is due to the fact that the people who will be damned to be suffering in this place will be wishing that they repent their sins and move out but all this will be in vain as they would be damned to stay in the place eternally. The second version is the psychological interpretation of the Biblical teachings. This version sharply contradicts with the initial interpretation as it argues that the nature of hell ought not to be literally taken from the Biblical teachings. On the contrary, this version sees the darkness and fires that are used to describe the nature of hell as merely symbols and metaphors that are strategically used to depict the suffering that is in helliv. The fundamental argument that is used by the proponents of this line of thought is the fact that human beings were made by God. It is therefore in their nature that whatever they desire most is to be with God eternally. Once this aspect is withdrawn then humans are bound to suffer (endure hell’s nature-withdrawal form God’s presence). According to this version, the nature of hell is therefore basically total withdrawal from the presence of God eternally. The darkness and fires that are used o describe the tough nature of hell simply

UK law property management practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

UK law property management practice - Essay Example Consideration of alternative market leases, general and specific situational advantages and disadvantages analysis of such alternative forms of leases in the market A lease in UK law pertains to the granting of exclusivity in land possession for a term that is well-defined and for a term that is shorter than that for which the grantor of the lease has himself or herself has legal land possession. As the definition implies, there are three aspects to the lease. The first has to do with the exclusivity of the possession. The second has to do with the fixed nature of the lease in terms of time. The third is that the term of the lease has to be shorter than the lawful time to which the grantor of the lease has possession of the land (In Brief 2013). Taking a step back, the Crown in theory has ownership of all land in the UK, and that other persons usually hold either a lease on the land, or else has a freehold relationship with the land, which is the strongest form of land ownership unde r UK law, outside of the Crown’s absolute ownership of all land (In Brief 2013b). ... he leaseholder in this sense becomes a tenant too in the definition of the law, meaning that within the terms of a legally binding lease agreement, the tenant is the recognized land owner under the law. In this sense, as owner of the land, he is able to legally make use of the land as other owners of the land do, with the caveat that those uses for which the land is made use of by the owner is within the confines of the requirements set forth by statutes. On the other hand, rights extend only so far as the owner of the lease has the right to occupy the land absolutely, until the leaseholder does not fulfill the contractual obligations, such as in instances when the leaseholder fails to make good on rent payments. Outside of this, the grantor of the lease is unable to end the lease before the date of expiration or the end of the period of tenancy, except with the serving of a notice strictly ruled by fixed and specified conditions. On the other hand, the institutional lease is said to be the cornerstone of commercial property law and the market for such leases in the UK. This is characterized by long terms, usually a quarter of a century, and is, as specified above, FRI type leases, meaning that they are full repairing as well as full insuring. Due to the integrity and predictability of such leases, with the rent reviews being done predictably too, every five years for the lease duration, these have become investible from the point of view of institutions such as pension firms as discussed above. Here the returns are predictable and guaranteed to a certain extent, as long as the tenants make good on their rent payments and their other related contractual obligations to the land and property (Mleyshon n.d.). That the institutional lease has become the foundation of

College of Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

College of Business - Essay Example The world of tomorrow is all about business. Nothing in this world is done without a business transaction or the knowledge of business. No matter what profession you go into, they are all concerned with business because it all comes down to finding a way to make money. The particular major that I am interested in is marketing. Your college offers very detailed and good courses in this subject. Also, the faculty that your college has is excellent. I have chosen marketing because I want to be able to promote products by understanding what people want, satisfy their needs; whenever I use a product or see an advertisement I always think of ways that I could have made it better. I also want to be successful tomorrow and to achieve that success I need to study general Business. It can help me gain a better understanding of the environment and not leave me clueless. It will help me socialize as no business is successful without socialization. A college can shape our future lives. The more we learn at college the better our lives will be. I am not particularly interested in science and medicine. The market for these professions is stagnant while the market for business graduates is increasing and will always be on the rise. There are never enough qualified business graduates and above that there are never enough marketing graduates who understand the market and can promote a product differently.

Exploring relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exploring relationship - Essay Example To comply with the requirements of the paper, one would explore whether different Shih Tzus exemplify distinct and unique characteristics and traits or opt to select a favored member through particular behavior being exhibited. Likewise, one explores the concept of loyalty developed and exhibited by dogs to their masters from various experiences. Currently, one’s family owns five Shih Tzus: three female and two male. All came from the dam (or mother) named Mahogany. The sire (the father) just recently died after 8 years of sharing his productive and unselfish love with all family members. He would be truly missed. From all the current Shih Tzus, one is particularly dominant in terms of exhibiting more aggressive behavior with regards to her view of guests, other pets, and the way she perceives herself as a member of the family. Her name is Ceesily, a pure while female of 16 months, who already bore one male puppy, named Hachiko. Ceesily had already exhibited dominant traits ev er since she was born. She was the eldest of a brood of six puppies and at the moment she was delivered. Her mother, Mahogany, immediately decided transferring to another place to deliver the rest of the puppies. Being lost and apparently abandoned, family members found Ceesily crawling fast under the bed looking for her mother. She was the first to open her eyes, the first to crawl, to walk, to run and to assume a playful and mischievous pup to the others. However, as she began to grow, family members immediately recognized that Ceesily’s physical appearance was different from the others. Her coat was not shaggy but finer and confined to her body. She did not grow them over her eyes and therefore, we could not bind them to a knot and put a cute ribbon, like the others. Likewise, she is the most aggressive to guests as she keeps barking and charging at new people who come visit the house. Despite her aggressiveness, she is also the only one who sleeps with the youngest member of the family on the bed; since Ceesily is the only one among them who could jump high and could therefore treat herself to a lazy afternoon on the sofa or the bed, as she desires. Upon observation, one noted that the Shih Tzus chose one’s mother as their master or boss since she was the one who regularly feeds them. When feeding time comes, all five are aligned in strategic positions patiently waiting for their respective share. Another indication that these pet dogs have selected her as their special friend is the fact the when she works on her computer (as she is a freelance writer), all the five dogs could be observed scattered by her side. Ceesily, as her jumping prowess would attest, could be seen lying on the sofa chair where one’s mother is seated. The rest of the dogs lie by her foot, one under the table, and still others within the vicinity. One female, a young six month old puppy named Fruitcake, would sometimes beg her to be carried and be lodged together with Ceesily on the couch. It was like seeing a whole Shih Tzu family surrounding their own mother. When she finishes her work, all the dogs go down together with her, except Fruitcake, who despite knowing how to ascend the stairs, have not learned the skills to go down; as such, mother goes down with Fruitcake being carried. Having pets in the family is actually challenging in terms of additional

The spread of English and the rise of new Englishes Essay

The spread of English and the rise of new Englishes - Essay Example While on the study of English, introspection on how English came into being can be elucidated here. The following figure throws light on the various cultures and sects that contributed to the development of English as we see today. The history of English is divided into three periods since its existence way back some 1000 BCE. Though it is difficult to establish the correct year, researchers have unanimously concluded that the three periods are referred to as Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The graph above shows that the earliest period is marked with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A.D., though no records of their language survive from before the seventh century, and continued till the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. Before the end of the eleventh century, Britain was also being influenced by Latin. Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066, had a substantial impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typified that the grammar of Old English had begun to break down (Merriam-Webster, 2007)2. We have see 2.0 Executive Summary We have seen that English is now a popular language spoken by natives of almost all nations around the globe. But, does English actually qualify to be the global language A headline in 'Globe and Mail' published in Toronto in 1997 read, "English is the global language". Though not much of ado, headlines of similar nature have appeared in thousands of newspapers and magazines across the globe in recent years. 'English Rules', a headline with a difference, showcases the popularity and strength of English in a world of uncanny universality of the language's spread and continuation. So what does it mean to say that a language is a global language Or why is English the language, usually cited in this connection If English did become the global language, will it remain omnipresent These and more questions lead researchers to question the theory, whether; English is in fact the first language of the world If English is one's mother tongue, one may have mixed feelings about the way English is spreading around the world. On the one hand, there is cause for pride, that English language has become ever so successful, but on the other, there could be consternation that the same language that was inherent as English, is being influenced by others, who borrow words from languages other than English to suit themselves (David Crystal, 2003, English as a Global Language)3. A lot of countries have their own native language or 'mother tongue', as it is popularly referred to as. If this is the case, which is true, how does English qualify to be declared the official global language There are two possibilities; one, English

Analyze the in Office Ancillary Services Exception to the Stark Act as Research Paper

Analyze the in Office Ancillary Services Exception to the Stark Act as it relates to block leases - Research Paper Example he medical practitioner is financially associated with the care services; and d) the medical practitioner implements referrals to a care provider for purposes of furnishing the DHS. Physicians and health practices depend on the in-office ancillary services and related medical practice exceptions to the Stark law to permit DHS referrals within the parameters of the practice. Of these, Washlick (2008) noted that the in-office ancillary services exception is most commonly applied because it enables physicians providing various services to: a) make referrals for select DHS within the confines of medical practice; b) inform those DHS to provide the necessary patient care; c) apply Medicare and Medicaid cover to defray the costs resulting from the services; and d) retain and channel the revenues collected from rendering the services within the practice for settling practice expenditure and physician remuneration. These exclusions are therefore of great value to the rendering of patient services and other internal activities. As Micklos and Sevell (2004) noted, the in-office ancillary services exception (IOASE) is arguably the most significant allowance given under the outlaw of self-referrals of select health services by medical practitioners. In the recent past, however, renewed attempts to revisit referral rules have threatened the effectiveness of physician practice. For instance, the federal budget for the 2014-2015 financial year contains a number of measures which are intended to enhance a greater level of proper remuneration for the proper rendering of health care under the Medicare platform. The budget is responsive to various recommendations by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) and MedPac that self-referral of simpler services culminates in a higher volume of care when they are integrated with payments for the service fees (Clark, Johnstone, Lynch, & Cardenas, 2004). The Budget seeks to limit the IOASE by permitting only practitioners who meet given

Vermeer’s Painting Technique inWoman Holding a Balance Essay Example for Free

Vermeer’s Painting Technique inWoman Holding a Balance Essay Johanna’s Vermeer’s paintings, although masterpiece creations of great precision and detail, were hardly recognized until after his death. After his death, many observations and analysis were conducted. Much of his painting styles became noticeable by investigating his unfinished works. His lifelike paintings used very special techniques invented exclusively by him. The camera obscurer technique is his claim to fame. Constant reinventions of his painting techniques come around today in several different forms and style. The camera obscurer technique is widely used for theatre, film and stage designing. One of his most famous astounding paintings are A Woman Holding a Balance. The painting, A Woman Holding a Balance, is a portrait emphasizing riches, material wealth, luxury, femininity daintiness and delicacy. Upon looking at the picture, delicate feminine items symbolizing material luxury jumps out and touches the viewer. A woman wears a designer dark blue jacket with white fur trimmings. Such elegant jackets were worn by upper class wealthy women while doing their domestic duties. The exquisite jacket is lined with fur throughout the inside of the jacket, indicating this is an intricate designer original. At this time, the only heating resources available were a fireplace usually in the living room. The three boxes laying on the luxurious wooden table, containing intricate detailed luxurious designs are another outstanding symbology of wealth and riches. Red velveteen lines the largest box. Several glowing, shinning pearl necklaces lay over the top of delicately carved jewelry box. To the far left, in front of the painting is a blue velveteen blanket or cloth. The images sold and viewed today in art museums are restored. In the original paintings, the blanket resembled a greenish tone. The greenish tone was a side effect of the heavy yellowish varnish Vermeer used to shade or set his entire paintings. Blue colorings are known to discolor varnish in paintings. On the wall, directly across from the woman, is an elegant ebony mirror. The mirror may indicate pride and vanity. Many arguments and research looked into finding out what was the woman holding in the balance. Earlier sources concluded the balance was holding gold coins. However, microscopic research showed there was nothing in the balance. The message the balance contains may be interpreted infinitely. Perhaps the woman was involved in a peaceful solitary prayer or meditation ritual. The balance could stand for mental or emotional peacefulness, much like crystals used in prayer ceremonies. One of the most beautiful highlights of this painting is natural sunlight furnishing the light in the room. The photograph bears incredibly noticeable brightness. The sunlight brings a hint of notoriety to the golden curtains. The painting contains a picture inside a picture. In the background, on the wall is a mysterious picture containing many subliminal shapes and designs. It may be considered abstract art work. In the upper center appears to be a man, perhaps an angel in human form, descending down from the heavens surrounded in glowing light. To either side appears to be what may be interpreted as animals, but not definitely so. At the bottom of the photo are designs appearing to be lots of people. The photograph was apparently another famous painting named The Last Judgment. The woman may also be very pregnant, in her eight or ninth month.

High School Prophecy Essay Example for Free

High School Prophecy Essay Life is an exciting, mystical, powerful and romantic adventure in the modern WORD. As we face life, how would we imagine the success of ourselves? We should prepare to face another chapter of our life in the future. Ten years from now I can imagine myself being an administrator of a famous school waiting for my promotion as a division superintendent staying in my own beautiful mansion living in a comfortable life. As I traveled along the shores of the Philippines I couldn’t shut my ears off listening to a beautiful voice inside araneta coliseum oh! It is the nightingale of our school way back when I was in high school, Beverly Rose Mangubat. I couldn’t believe she is now one the most popular singers in the Philippines. Then when I went back to the cruise ship where I am riding I saw a beautiful woman, my eyes sparkled as I saw Ann Maurice Branzuela now a very successful maritime officer. Then I departed the ship and preparing myself to drive off the road with my beautiful BMW. I went on a conference with the different school administrators in the province; I couldn’t help but laugh watching the one and only guy during our high school days who is now an administrator of the newest university in the province Jhon Oneal Collamat, so called to be one the most eligible bachelor in the Country. As I traveled the road way back home, I suddenly stopped and glanced at a huge skyscraper; which is also a bank, and my heart was jumping when I found out that it was Carlyn Mae Tamayo who owns it the math wizard during our time. As I opened my computer at home a new webpage was found, I couldn’t get my eyes staring on the screen as I read the name Jesha Mae Roflo— she was the founder. Don’t even think about it when she even made a virus to hack computers herself. Wow! Life is really amazing. We need to imagine our success to have an excellent future!

Historical People and Events

Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi Historical People and Events Historical People and Events Joan of Arc Joan of Arc is a national heroine of France honored and respected by everyone. She was an illiterate peasant girl who rose to the ranks of leading French armies to victory against England until her capture when she was only 19 years old. She was executed as a heretic in a politically motivated trial. Twenty four years later the Catholic Church declared her innocence and she was canonized as a saint in 1920. She was born in a time when France and England were at war. The Armagnacs and the Burgundians were two French factions at war with each other. By 1484 England was occupying Northern France. The English began a siege of Orleans. Her parents were Jacques dArc and Isabelle Rome. Her father was a farmer and a minor village official. She got her first visions at the age of 12 where St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret told her to expel the English. She obtained an interview with the royal French court where she predicted about military reverses of the English near Orleans. She was responsible for pursuing an aggressive offensive strategy by the French army in the siege of Orleans. The defeat of English led to the capture of Jargeau, Meung-sur-Loire, Beaugency and annihilated the English army at the battle of Patay. A truce was signed between the two French factions following the arrival of the French army at Reims. The agreement was broken by Duke Philip. A French advance towards Paris was put off after an order to withdraw. Joan was captured on May 1430 following a skirmish with the English. She was put on trial for heresy in a politically motivated trial. She had supported the other side in France. She was executed for heresy. The inquisitors who interviewed her could not find any evidence of heresy and were convinced of her innocent. The priests who had put her on trial were forced and intimidated by the English government to pronounce heresy. Joan of Arc is honored and revered as a heroine throughout her life and beyond. The French military was inspir ed by her use of artillery and frontal tactics in warfare. Legends have survived about her legacy. The best known is that she did not feel pain during her execution. She is also believed to have died peacefully. She rose to prominence from an illiterate peasant girl to an inspiration for the French military. She gave hope to a discredited regime and inspired the French people to fight a popular war of national liberation. Joan of Arc expelled women from the French army and did not believe in feminism. She has been a political symbol ever since her death. The Vichy government, French resistance, liberals, conservatives, etc have all used her for their political purposes. Many people have studied about the religious visions of Joan. Most people believe in the sincerity of her faith. They consider it to be divine inspiration. Documents which detail about her visions are vague and possibly some fabrications have been added. Some researchers have tried to explain her visions in the form of neurological or psychiatric terms. This view has been opposed by many historians on grounds that hallucinations and hearing voices does not necessarily point to mental illness. Further a person with such lifestyle like Joan would have found it hard to maintain if she had a serious disease. The court of King Charles VII was highly skeptical and shrewd with regards to mental illness. His own father suffered from insanity and under him France began a long decline. Her boldness and physical rigor of her military career counters the theory that she suffered from any cognitive impairment. Joan of Arc remains a popular heroine and political symbol in France. She passionately pursued a national war of liberation and inspired the French to regain hope. She was sincere in faith. Her sincerity and legacy remain stronger than ever even after her death more than five hundred years ago. Johannes Gutenberg Gutenberg was a German Printer, and Pioneer in the use of movable type, he was sometimes identified as the first European to print with hand-set type cast and molds. Although he was not the only person working on the printing press, he was considered to be the main part of it. Gutenbergs name does not appear on any of the works attributed to him, but historical records have given evidence that he is indeed the one who printed them. Johannes Gutenberg was born in 1397. He was born into a noble family in the city of Mainz, a mining town, in Southern Germany. His father was Friele Gansfleisch, his mother was Else Wyrich. His early training was as a goldsmith and an inventor. In 1428, he moved to Strasbourg for political reasons. He remained there for over twenty years. It was in Strasbourg that he made his first experiments with movable type. Gutenberg had the idea of modernizing techniques of metalworking, such as casting, punch-cutting, and stamping, for the mass production of books. Gutenberg became more and more intrigued by these subjects, which led to further experiments with movable type. He started to experiment with metal molds, alloys, special presses, and oil based inks. Little did he know that this experimentation, with a little increased work, would remain the main type of printing until the late twentieth century. In 1438 Gutenberg entered into a partnership with Andreas Dritzehn to conduct experiments in printing. Gutenberg taught Dritzehn about what he had learned dealing with movable type. In about 1450 Gutenberg returned to Mainz, where he formed yet another partnership with a German merchant and a money lender by the name of Johann Fust. With the money that he borrowed from Fust, Gutenberg was able to open up a press where he did additional research and experiments with movable type. It was sometime between 1450 and 1456 that Gutenberg set to work, and completed, a forty- two line Bible (it was 42 lines per page). The bible was referred to as th e Gutenberg Bible, also known as the Mazarine Bible, or the 42-lined bible. Today there is only 47 extant copies, the most widely known presently was acquired by the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Only two other perfect copies of the Gutenberg Bible are known to exist today. The Gutenberg Bible was widely known for its beauty and elegance. A German printer, Peter Schoffer, Fusts son-in-law, and Gutenbergs apprentice helped to print the work of the Bible. Gutenbergs main goal was to mechanically reproduce medieval liturgical manuscripts without taking away their color or design. In 1455 Fust demanded that Gutenberg repay the money that was invested in the business. This dispute resulted in a lawsuit in which Gutenberg abandoned his claims to his invention and gave up his stocks. Even though he had a dispute with Fust, Gutenberg continued his work with printing. During the years following the dispute and lawsuit Gutenberg printed several small but popular items such as calend ars, but in 1458 Gutenberg printed another bible, only this one was the 36 line Bible. Gutenberg began to re-establish his printing press company with the help of a man named Conrad Humery. At around 1460 Gutenberg was able to print the Missale speciale constantiense as well as the Catholicon. Gutenbergs press was made up of characters of equal height, and these characters were printed on hand-made paper. His press involved a mold that had the outlines of letters and other characters stamped into it. Letters of type could be produced quickly by pouring liquid metal into the pre-made molds. These stamped and molded letters were then put together to make pages of printing. Gutenbergs accomplishments with movable type made book production more economically possible, and easier to produce literature quicker. The new innovations in the printing press opened new possibilities for German literature. The printing press allowed an easier exchange of ideas throughout Europe and helped spread the ideas of the Renaissance. As more productions of literature occurred, more different languages were also printed out. Gutenbergs invention brought the printed word to a wider audience, altering history with its big impact on literacy and education. Before books were able to be printed with the printing press people had to believe what they heard from other people. They werent able to rely on what they read from history books or other sources of information. Before the printing press was invented, making books was a long and hard process, and the books that were produced were extremely costly. The printing press provided a practical and inexpensive way to produce literature. It was a particularly valuable invention, and it made a great contribution to the world. With the invention of the printing press reading and writing were no longer restricted to religious things, or to the rich. People soon learned to question the authority of the ruling class, which was also part of the spr ead of the Renaissance. The printing press sparked an enlightenment and widespread access and appreciation for classical art and literature. These new appreciations developed a new passion among people for artistic self expression. Without the printing press, the Renaissance may never have occurred. Queen Elizabeth I Elizabeths Childhood and Youth Elizabeth was born near London on Sept. 7, 1533. Her father was Henry VIII, bluff King Hal. Her mother was Anne Boleyn, the second of Henrys six wives. Henrys first wife, Catherine of Aragon, had only one surviving child, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, so he asked the pope to annul the marriage. Because the pope refused, Henry broke away from the Roman Catholic church and set himself up as head of the church in England. Then he married Anne. He was disappointed that Annes child also was a girl. Before Elizabeth was 3 years old, he had her mother beheaded. Henry gave Elizabeth a house of her own in the country. He paid little attention to her, and her governess complained that the princess hath neither gown, nor kirtle, nor petticoat. Henry provided excellent tutors, however, and Elizabeth showed a love for learning. One of her tutors, Roger Ascham, wrote: Her perseverance is equal to that of a man, and her memory long keeps what it quickly picks up. Sh e talks French and Italian as well as she does English. When she writes Greek and Latin, nothing is more beautiful than her handwriting. She delights as much in music as she is skillful in it. Henrys third wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to a son, Edward. Henry died when Edward was 10 years old, and the boy came to the throne as Edward VI. Elizabeth and Edward were both brought up in Henrys new church. Their half sister Mary was brought up a Roman Catholic. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen and at once made Catholicism the state religion. Mary suspected Elizabeth of plotting with the Protestants to gain the throne and had her imprisoned for two months in the Tower of London. When Mary died, there were two claimants to the throne. If Elizabeth did not succeed, the next heir was Mary Stuart of Scotland, a Catholic. Mary Stuart was about to be married to the dauphin Francis of France. If she won the throne of England, both Scotland and England would be joined to France. Philip II of Spain, though a Catholic, threw his influence on the side of Elizabeth because he was jealous of Frances power. Later the Spanish ambassador hinted to Elizabeth that she owed her throne to Philip. Elizabeth replied that she owed it to her people. She is very much wedded to her people, the ambassador wrote, and thinks as they do. When Elizabeth became queen in 1558, she rode at once to London from her country home, traveling in a slow procession to give the people a chance to see her. Guns boomed, bells rang, and the people cheered her and scattered flowers in her path. At the beginning of her reign England was in despair. The country had been weakened by war and religious strife, and the treasury was empty. Spain and France were powerful, and both wanted to rule England. The people hoped their young queen would soon marry a strong man who would guide her. But Elizabeth at once took the government into her own hands; and, though she had many suitors and close friendships with several men, she steadfastly refused to marry. The young queen chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), who was cautious and conservative like herself. For 40 years he was her mainstay in both home and foreign affairs. Her favorite courtier was the charming and handsome Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. When she died at the age of 69, she was still called the Virgin Queen. By then rich and secure, England was enjoying its greatest literary period. English ships were sailing into all seas, and the island kingdom had begun to establish its position as a world leader. In religious matters Elizabeth steered a middle course between the extreme Protestants and the Catholics. She restored the Protestant service but retained many features of Catholicism, including bishops and archbishops. She hoped this compromise would produce unity in the state; but the Catholics, who formed a majority of her subjects, were not reconciled. From time to time some of them plotted with Spain or France to put Mary Stuart on the throne in place of Elizabeth. France and Spain were rivals, and Elizabeth was usually able to play one off against the other. She even used courtship as part of her diplomatic game. She refused to marry Philip II of Spain but held out hopes to more than one of his royal relatives when France seemed to threaten. Later, when Philip turned against England, Elizabeth encouraged French princes. To cut Scotlands ties with France, she gave secret help to the Scottish Presbyterians. She also aided the Protestant Netherlands when they revolted against Spain. Mary Stuart returned to Scotland in 1561 after the death of her husband, Francis, king of France. In 1568 she was compelled to flee across the English border to ask Elizabeths help. Elizabeth kept her a prisoner for 19 years. Finally Mary was accused of having a part in the so-called Babington plot to assassinate Elizabeth. Parliament demanded her execution. Elizabeth signed the warrant; and Mary Stuart was beheaded in 1587. In the last years of Elizabeths reign, Catholics were cruelly persecuted and many were put to death. Defeat of the Spanish Armada During the first 30 years of Elizabeths reign England was at peace. Commerce revived, and English ships were boldly venturing across the seas to the West Indies. There they came into conflict with Spain and Portugal, which owned and ruled the whole New World and claimed a monopoly of trade. English smugglers broke through the blockade and made huge profits by selling, in the West Indies, blacks they had seized in Africa. John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and other English seamen also waylaid Spanish ships on their way home and seized their gold. Elizabeth aided the English privateers with ships and money and shared in their profits and stolen treasure. Philip II finally decided to put an end to these attacks by invading and conquering England. After years of preparation, Philip assembled a great fleet of his best and largest w arships, called by the Spanish the Armada (that is, fleet). In 1588 the Armada sailed into the English Channel. The English were waiting for them and at once put out to sea. Their ships were of newer design, smaller than the Spanish galleons, but faster and more heavily armed. In a nine-day battle they inflicted terrible losses on the enemy. The ships that escaped ran into bad weather and only a few returned to Spain. English ships then carried the war to Spain. When the struggle endedafter the deaths of both Elizabeth and Philipno Spanish fleet dared to contest Englands command of the seas. Englands Golden Age The most splendid period of English literature, called the Elizabethan Age, began in the later years of Elizabeths reign. Francis Bacon, writer of the Essays, was one of the queens lawyers. Edmund Spenser wrote The Faerie Queene in her honor. Shakespeare acted before her; but at the time of her death he had not yet written most of his great tragedies. Elizabeth enjoyed plays, but there is no evidence that she appreciated Shakespeares genius. Elizabeth was 55 years old when the Spanish Armada was defeated. Her joy in the victory was soon followed by grief, because her great favorite, Leicester, died a few months later. In 1598 her faithful minister Lord Burleigh passed away. In her court appeared young menSir Walter Raleigh, brilliant and adventurous, and the earl of Essex, a handsome young soldier. Essex fell from favor and Elizabeth had him executed for trying to stir up a rebellion against her. She died two years later, in 1603, at the age of 69, and was buried with great magnificence in Westminster Abbey. Mary Stuarts son, James VI of Scotland, was proclaimed James I of England, thus uniting the crowns of the two kingdoms. The things we think of chiefly as marking the reign of Elizabeth are the religious question, the defeat of the Spanish Armada, and the flourishing of literature. Also important, however, were hundreds of laws on shipping, commerce, industry, currency reform, roads, poor relief, and agriculture. These laws shaped the policy of England for more than two centuries after Elizabeths reign had ended. Aztecs The Aztec Indians, who are known for their domination of southern and central Mexico, ruled between the 14th and 16th centuries. Their name is derived from Azatlan, the homeland of the north. The Aztecs also call themselves Mexica and there language came from the Nahuatlan branch of the Uto-Aztecan family. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. Late families were unfortunate and were forced to go to the swamp lands. In the swamp lands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families some how converted these disadvantages to a might empire known as they Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went it said that Aztec people would create a empire on in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake while perched on a cactus which is growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This i s what priests claimed they saw while entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city aqueducts (piping) were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by piled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew corn, beans, chili peppers, squash, tomatoes, and tobacco. Tenochtitlan (the capital city) was covered in giant religious statues in order to pay their respects to the gods. In the Aztec religion numerous gods controlled an Aztecs daily life. Some of these gods include: Uitzilpochtli (the sun god), Coyolxauhqui (the moon goddess), Tlaloc (the rain god), and Quetzalcoatl (the inventor of the calendar and writing). Another part of the Aztec religion was human sacrifices. For their sacrifices the priest would lay the man or woman over a convex (rounded) stone, and then he would take a sharp knife and cut the victims heart out. They did this because they believed that good gods could prevent bad gods from doing evil things and they also believed that good gods got their strength from human blood and hearts so they had sacrifices in order to keep their gods strong. For major rituals warriors were sacrificed, for the warrior this was one of the greatest honors and for minor rituals prisoners were used. In an Aztec marriage the grooms shirt is tied to the brides dress in order to express their bonding and after the wedding incents were burned for 4 days before proceeding with the marriage. In 1519 Hernando Cortes, a Spanish explorer, led over 500 men into Aztec territory to search for gold. Aztecs thought he was a representative for a certain white skinned god so they respected him. It all changed when the Aztecs saw that Hernando was melting down their golden statues and shipping them back to Spain. The Aztecs decided to attack Hernando and his men. The Aztecs were successful and drove the Spanish away. In 1520 the Spanish attacked the Aztecs capit al city and destroyed their civilization. That was the end of the Aztecs mighty empire had built so long ago. Spanish Inquisition The Inquisition was a religious movement to find and give punishment to heretics . The word inquisition comes from the word inquisitio, or inquest. The word inquisitio refers to the legal process that named the tribunals. It involved finding and interrogating suspects of crimes under oath to tell the truth. Some would condemn themselves. This method of finding heretics worked very well with the Waldensians and the Cathars. In France, the Templars were persecuted by the Inquisitors. In the year 392 A.D. the Roman Emperor Thodosius I outlawed every religion that was not Christian or Jewish. After he declared that, heresy became not only a religious offense, but also a civil one. Heretics began revolting quite frequently in the eleven and twelve hundreds, so the Church took over the job of finding and punishing heretics. In 1231, a special court was created by Pope Gregory IV to demand that all heretics become Christians. The Congregation of the Holy Office took control of the Inquisiti on in 1542. The judges for the Inquisition were almost all Dominican and Franciscan friars. The Inquisition took place mostly in Germany, France, Italy, and Spain. It did take place in other countries, but not as commonly. The investigations were in secret and almost all of the inquisitors abused their powers. Most Inquisitors were Dominican monks, appointed by the head of the Inquisition. Inquisitors and judges of the Inquisition could be compared to the prosecutors and judges of todays courts, to use an analogy. The inquisitor-general would appoint tribunals. Tribunals are groups of inquisitors. During an inquisition, two inquisitors, who traveled together, would call out to a town, city, or village for confessions. Only males under age fourteen and females under age twelve would not be considered as heretics. Questions would be asked of those accused in the local language. The answers were written down by scribes in Latin. The accused would never be defended by anyone, because th en the defender would be thought to be a heretic. The accused ones would not even know who had accused them. Judgments were given on Sundays, in a sermon. Punishment could range from death to paying a fine. Usually heretics were killed. The Inquisition in England was strengthened when the Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation was started. It was to prevent more conversion the Protestantism and to clean up the church. The sale of indulgences was no longer permitted. It was completely done away with. Fear of the Inquisition was also used to discourage becoming Protestant and abandoning Catholicism, for fear of being tried as a heretic. In the fifteen hundreds, the Inquisition was used by the Catholic church against Protestants. Also from the Counter-Reformation came the Jesuits, or the Society of Jesus, which was a group of powerful missionaries. During the Spanish Inquisition alone, from 1478 to 1834, thousands of people were tortured and killed. The person resp onsible for the death of over two thousand Spaniards was Tomas de Torquemanda. He was the leader of the Spanish Inquisition for fifteen years, from 1483 to 1498. He created the rules and precedents of inquisitorial procedure. He formed branches of the Inquisition in many major cities. When the Spanish Inquisition got out of hand, the Church tried to stop it but they could not halt it. The Spanish Inquisition ran its reign of terror from 1478 to 1834. It was said by Mark in Mark 4:22 that Jesus said, For there is nothing to be hid, except to be made manifest, nor is anything secret, except to come to light. The death of all those innocents was something that the Church had tried to hide. They would be imprisoned for days, months, even years, after one hearing, some to finally be tortured to death. The prisoners would have moldy food and stale water, along with cockroaches and other vermin, to keep them company in the dark. As mentioned earlier, suspected heretics were interrogated. T he term should be tortured, in innumerable cases. The inquisitors tortured prisoners to coerce them to confess. There were many ways that heretics would be tortured. Many were very gruesome. Torture has been used by many societies, in all times and places, even now. One method of torture was the use of pear-shaped devices that were forced into the mouth, anus, or vagina and then expanded, by way of mechanical devices, to thereby expand the body cavity. This would irreparably damage the tissues, because each pair had points on it. Almost everyone would die after having this done to them. One other way of persuading heretics to confess was Squassation. This was through use of the Strappardo. This was done by tying the victims hands behind their back and lifting them into the air by their wrists, while having heavy weights attached to their ankles or testicles. Then, they would be dropped almost to the ground and jerked to a stop. This would often dislocate the arms and cause much dama ge to the body part of which the weights were attached. People would be mock-crucified also, by being nailed to a door in the manner of crucifixion. The door would then be swung back and forth or slammed shut quickly. Some heretics were given the water torture, which consisted of forcing the person to drink water through a funnel until they died or confessed. Heretics were also be burned to death on stakes. Some were killed by being put in an oven and being roasted. If suspected heretics would not confess to heresy, then they would often be burned at the stake. In 1224, Frederick II made it a law that heretics must die by fire. One of the worst times in the Inquisition was in the sixteen hundreds. During that period, anything bad that happened could be blamed on witches. Neighbors would accuse each other of being witches over soured milk, lice, and any other minor problem that would occur. If a person said that they didnt believe in witches or demons, then they would be accused of b eing a witch or a heretic. Torture has been proven to be an ineffective method of getting the truth out of someone. A person in great pain might admit to anything, even if innocent. One Templar who had been tortured said, Under such torture, I would have confessed to killing God. Guilds Guilds were created in the Middle Ages and were groups of people with a common interest in a certain trade. There were many different types of guilds varying from religious and social guilds to crafts and carpentry guilds. The main purposes of these guilds were to prevent individual businesses from controlling all of the business of a certain trade. This proved profitable for the smaller businesses. Individuals who refused to join the guild of their profession were forced to leave the town. Guilds also had their own specific coat of arms and badges for members. Craft guilds, comprised of bakers, goldsmiths, tailors, weavers, boatmen, and other craft workers, created rules to protect members of the guilds. Perhaps the most important of the above guilds were those of the boatmen, which were in the coastal port cities. The merchants guilds created rules that set a standard on prices of their products. The members could not sell discounted items to people who were not members of the guil d. They also set standards on the quality of their goods and agreed on wages for their workers. To become part of a guild, workers went through an initiation ceremony and other rites. These rites were known as collegia. Being a member of a guild had some advantages. Along with a membership, the workers received assistance from the guild when it was needed. The guild helped members with charity, funeral ceremonies, prayers for the dead, and provided other services for the members in their times of need. The guilds built halls and market places and helped with church and town projects. all of their crafts and creations were of great quality. If a member of the guild made an item of poor quality he was punished with fines. If he continued to make the crafts with the same quality he would be expelled from the guild. The craft workers who became very successful in their trade and who owned their own shops became the masters of the guild. Craft workers who did not fully master their trade , or did not run their own shops were the journeymen. The journeymen worked in the shops of the masters everyday and received pay from them. Young men who were learning certain trades became known as apprentices and received housing and meals from their master. After about two to seven years, an apprentice could become a journeyman. Journeymen who wanted to become masters had to show evidence of great skill. He also had to pass an examination or make a product in his craft. The product would then be judged by the other masters belonging to his guild. If the product was considered a masterpiece, the journeyman would become a master. Because it soon became more and more difficult for people to become masters, journeymen soon created their own associations. They separated from their masters because their needs were not being met and this angered the masters. The masters tried to fight back by securing the passage of laws prohibiting them. They were defeated most of the time by the guil ds, its members and officials in the town. Merchants and craftsmen had great honor in their trade. This caused them to make their products with nothing but the best and because of their quality crafts, they took in great amounts of money. If the lord of the town was in need of money, he would made the merchants and craftsmen feel obligated to donate their money by making them feel guilty and selfish. Many times, merchants were robbed on their journeys and within the towns they sold their items. Sometimes merchants were falsely accused of owing other merchants and people money. If he did not belong to a guild, it was his word against theirs. If he did belong to a guild, the members supported him. Because of the danger on the merchants journey, caravans, or groups of merchants which traveled together, soon developed. Cities developed around areas which contained items or food of value and where it was convenient for merchants to carry to and then sell their items. Guild halls were bui lt as a meeting house for medieval craft and trade guilds to meet. The guild hall in London, known as the Council Hall, is famous for its great hall and crypt. Other countries, such as Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, have excellent examples of Guild halls. The Lord Mayor of Londons banquet is held annually at the Guild hall in London. Because guilds became so popular and large, they became powerful in the government of the towns. When guilds needed permission to do something from their lord, they had to have the lord write his promise down and then it would be locked up safely in a strong chest in their Guild hall. This promise was called a charter. Guilds continued to increase their power by asking the lord for charters and were soon able to run a small portion of the town. They asked for a charter to allow them to appoint men to govern the town rather than the lords bailiff. Usually in return for this allowance, the guild had to pay a fixed rent each year. When they were allowed this, the guild was in charge of most of the town. As if the guilds were not complex and powerful enough, they decided to create associations of guilds, which controlled common foreign markets. Some examples of these associations are the League of the Flemish cities, concerned with the English wool trade. The association of North German cities, known as the Hanseatic League, controlled trades on the Baltic and North Seas. By the 1300s, guilds began to lose their protection and democratic sides. Guild membership began to pass down through the generations from father to son. This made it more difficult for new members to join the guilds. The increase of capitalistic industry was responsi